Overcoming resistance to PD-1 and CTLA-4 blockade mechanisms and therapeutic strategies

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting PD-1 and CTLA-4 have achieved groundbreaking clinical success in multiple cancers; however, a large proportion of patients experience primary or acquired resistance. This review synthesizes the complex mechanisms underlying resistance to PD-1/CTLA-4 bloc...

Full description

Bibliographic Details

Published in:	Frontiers in Immunology
Main Authors:	Xiaodong Wang, Jing He, Gouping Ding, Yixuan Tang, Qianqian Wang
Format:	Article
Language:	English
Published:	Frontiers Media S.A. 2025-10-01
Subjects:	PD-1/CTLA-4 blockade resistance tumor microenvironment T cell exhaustion immunotherapy combinations alternative checkpoints predictive biomarkers
Online Access:	https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2025.1688699/full