causal inference machine learning 2 observational data 2 Bias 1 CMIP6 model projections 1 California precipitation 1 E-value 1 backdoor criterion 1 before-after-control-impact 1 big data 1 causal diagrams 1 confounding 1 data pre-training 1 deep neural network 1 directed acyclic graphs 1 econometrics 1 instrumental variable 1 legal judgment prediction 1 multi-task learning 1 optimization 1 precision medicine 1 propensity score 1 quantitative analysis 1 quantitative bias analysis 1 regression discontinuity design 1 sensitivity analysis 1 structural causal model 1 uncertainty reduction 1